Doctoral Thesis

Multimedial Musicality

in the Performance Text

Foreword

This dissertation is divided into two major sections. The first of the two, called Discovering the Musical Text as an Embedded Sign, is primarily philosophical and theoretical: it attempts to redefine traditional western conceptions of music so that the theory can encompass the complex ‘intertextuality’ of musical experience. The intention here is to help us in the second part of the work which will be concentrating on interculturality in Balinese performance. The first section consists of four chapters, each of which shares common themes and theoretical goals. Using as its major tool post-Husserlian phenomenology and post-structural theory, the first chapter attempts to redefine ‘music’ not as a thing to be examined and dissected, but a way of experiencing reality; a way of informing us about time and space in the present: an ‘episteme’ (See Foucault, The Order of Things). Music is obviously more than this alone, and the chapters following the first attempt to come closer to individual performances. The major point of departure is viewing musical experience as a complex type of cultural sign. This musical sign is placed in a different light in each of these chapters, and the object of analysis moves from the static musical object to the dynamic process of musical performance; the significance of the musical sign is revealed to exist as much in its creation as its material form. An appropriate metaphor for the structure of the theoretical section is that of the Balinese temple which is also divided into three sections. It is only through gaining access to the outer realms that one can venture into the most sacred inner sanctum. In this case, the central point awaiting the reader is the Balinese musical performance as a sign viewed as a physically embodied phenomenon embedded in a cultural context. The first major theme of this section is the exploration of multimediality explored in terms of the way ‘musicality’ can be experienced by all the senses and not just as a static aural object. Other major topics include the notion of the embedded and the embodied ‘sign’. Here the sign is considered in terms of its semiosis in an ‘embedded’ environment—a non transcendental contextualised sign—and in terms of its ‘embodiment’ in real human physicality. The whole first section is devoted to heralding in a new epistemology based on a transferral from product- to process-based thinking, representing a realisation of the importance of the dynamics of a contextualised, embedded situation to all processes of human semiosis.

The second major section recognises the importance of music in creating and perpetuating Balinese culture, and explores the different roles that music has played throughout history in Balinese society. This section is called Interculturality in Balinese Performance Texts and has two separate chapters. These chapters attempt to demonstrate the bilateral relationship between musical performance and social change. That is, music is not simply an expression of the current social, political or philosophical situation, but is a force which in its turn influences cultural development. Although this section contains a lot of important historical ‘facts’ concerning influence on Bali both from the West and the ‘New Indonesia’, the bilateral relationship between music and culture presents a connection with the theoretical opening section. The last chapter, which includes a discussion of the individual works of contemporary Balinese composers and choreographers, attempts to use the preceding theoretical and practical work to suggest some ideas about a the possible future for Balinese performance. Two of the major themes introduced in this section are tradition and innovation, where new artistic works are explored in terms of either perpetuating strong cultural givens inculcated by society (tradition) or breaking away with radical new ideas (innovation), acting to change the society in which the artist lives. Another major theme is, of course, the whole issue of interculturality. We explore this phenomenon in terms of how and why people belonging to certain cultures are turning more and more to other cultures to answer many of the questions which aren’t sufficiently approached within their own culture. This issue is dealt with in terms of what I refer to as self-reflexive interculturality which involves an artist finding in another culture (the Other) what they expect or need to find rather than what is actually there, leading to western creations like utopia and exoticism.

Each chapter is divided into a number of major divisions which express the most important themes of the chapter. In turn, these divisions are divided into a number of sections which, if necessary, are sub-divided into units. Very often, these units are divided again into sub-units. Although the sub-units can also contain numbered paragraphs, these are used only in terms of reference and are not named. Each of the units which are in some way sub-divided are usually precluded by an introduction describing the contexts of the following partitions, just as the intention of each of the sections is precluded by a brief summary at the beginning of the chapter divisions. Each of these divisions, sections, units and other markings are numbered for the purpose of cross-referencing. Information in the index and glossary refers to this numbering system and not the page numbers, just as within the work itself the reader is directed to divisions, units and sub-units rather than page numbering (i.e. see sub-unit 1.6433 for more information in this regard).

Balinese culture has influenced artists and researchers throughout the twentieth century, and is still creating a large influence today both to artists and theoreticians from the West who are attracted to this remarkably well-preserved culture. Through the perpetuation of complex cultural systems, the Balinese have been able to remain largely self-sufficient; not being too ‘adversely’ affected by outside influence. Their culture is for us a truly unique phenomenon, a structure that provides a coherent significative context to Balinese existence. Within this ‘tightly spun fabric’ (to evoke a somewhat outdated Geertzian image), the performance of music plays a very important role, supporting and perpetuating an intricately complicated matrix of sound, movement and action. For the Balinese, music is certainly more than simply a diversion, but a complex cultural phenomenon. In order to try and encompass this phenomenon in theoretical terms, an entity that can’t be separated from the cultural context to which it is bound, traditional European methods of analysis that tend towards distinction and separation have to be avoided or subverted. It is necessary to open the discussion into a large number of different fields, including anthropology, linguistics, ethnomusicology, performance and ritual theory to name a few. I hope the reader enjoys the challenging philosophical and theoretical journey I considered necessary to realise my research goals.

There are many, many people who I would like to thank for their contribution to this work. For Section One, Dr. Saskia Kersenboom at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands provided me with an enormous amount of theoretical support. The whole first section is based on influences taken from a lecture series she gave on the Multimedial Text, and also on ideas taken from both published and unpublished works I had the privilege of reading. Particularly useful was her book Word, Sound, Image: The Life of the Tamil Text (1995) which includes a ‘multimedial’ text in the form of a CD-ROM, one you can interact with and where the multimedial elements such as interaction between dance, gesture, language and song are all present providing the possibility for understanding multimedial elements which are lacking in traditional western written texts. Her work on multimediality in the text was so influential that I hoped to structure this work in a similarly ‘interactive’ way. Unfortunately, lacking access to the necessary funds and equipment, this didn’t come to pass, but it explains the extended numerical system I have used and the circular structure of the work: in the ‘hypertext’ version every unfamiliar term could lead directly to another part of the text by simply clicking on a word, and the general structure of the work was one which involved the reader finding his or her own way into the theoretical ‘heart’ as it were. This also explains some of the repetition revised in each new chapter now that the hypertext can no longer allow the reader to easily revise any given topic at any given time.

I’d also like to thank two friends who have supported me emotionally during this difficult period: Patrick Eecloo and Guy De Mey who were there for me (almost) all the time when times got difficult. Before the field-work I did in Bali I spent two years in the Netherlands learning Balinese gamelan and attending Dr. Kersenboom’s courses. Dr. Henrice Vonck at the University of Amsterdam and Dr. Hedi Hinzler at the University of Leiden also deserve my thanks. They were both members of the gamelan group I played with called Sandi Sari, and they provided me with both unconditional advice and the chance to learn to play Balinese music, which I greatly appreciate. In Belgium, I have formed my own gamelan group (called Saling Asah) and that was also a highly educational experience. In this regard I’d particularly like to thank our teacher I Made Agus Wardana who has taught me both Gender Wayang and Gong Kebyar, in addition to being a remarkable source of information. During the field-work trips in 1997 and 1998 I stayed with Wardana’s family, which was in itself an educational experience. Made’s brothers, sister-in-laws, mother, father and other relatives all made me feel like an ‘embedded participant’, allowing me to partake in temple celebrations and other family affairs. At the STSI in Bali, I had the chance to interview important teachers and composers, and I’d like to take the chance to thank them: I Nyoman Windha, I Komang Astita, and I Wayan Dibia. Elaine Barkin, Wayne Vitale and Nyoman Wenten—all of whom live in California—also allowed me to interview them in both California and Bali, which was of great assistance. Finally, there are an enormous amount of people I’d like to thank for their assistance to my research, some of whom I’ve never met. These are people I came into contact with via the internet, either through personal contacts or a major gamelan mailing list. Some of the people who assisted me include Herbst, Wallis, Grauer, Tenzer, and Mack among many others. I’d like to thank them for the efforts they made to help me. Lastly, I’d like to thank Prof. Dr. J. Van Schoor at the University of Ghent who supported me in all my activities throughout the this work’s conception and preparation. Without the assistance of all these people, I wouldn’t have been able to produce this book.

The writing of this work has truly been an important event in my life, representing an enormous development in my ability to reflect upon the world and understand my role in it as both an observer and an (artistic) participant. My research tactics began in a sensuous form through my work as a composer, which was followed by a gradual transformation which led to the development of an ability to analyse not only my own work and its role in my own personal experience of reality, but also into how ‘musicality’ communicates in our life, and more generally into the role of individuals as vital participants in culture. I feel looking back over the last four years that I’ve covered enormous ground, although I admit this is in a way only the first step on what will become a life-time journey, one which I will take on with enormous enthusiasm.

Table of Contents

Foreword

Table of Contents

General Introduction

Chapter 1: Musical Experience as Episteme

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Understanding Contemporary Western Thought

1.21 Fixity and Flexibility: tracing and questioning our current ‘episteme’

1.211 FOUCAULDIAN ANALYSIS

1.212 LONGING FOR THE REAL: early western thought (essentialism/realism)

1.213 LONGING FOR DUALITY: Descartes/Kant legacy of dichotomous thinking

1.2131 Introduction to dichotomous idealism

1.2132 Platonic mind/body distinction

1.2133 Reasoning versus sense perception: Cartesian dualism

1.2134 Kantian dichotomy

1.2135 Transcending the body

1.214 CONCLUSION

1.22 Pervading paradigm in western culture: the legacy of positivism and empiricism

1.221 THE WESTERN EPISTEME

1.222 THE RISE OF EMPIRICISM AND POSITIVISM

1.2221 The philosophy/science distinction

1.2222 The origin and significance of empiricism

1.2223 The origin and significance of positivism

1.2224 Development in the 20^th century

1.2225 The legacy of positivism

1.23 Semiology and Semiotics in the twentieth century

1.231 SAUSSURIAN LINGUISTICS

1.232 PEIRCIAN SEMIOTICS

1.233 PHENOMENOLOGY

1.234 STRUCTURALISM

1.235 SEMIOTICS AND THE QUEST FOR ULTIMATE KNOWLEDGE: a step backwards

1.2351 The semiotic haven

1.2352 The distancing of the author and the reader from the ‘text’

1.2353 The universal application of semiotic theory

1.24 The destabilisation of post-structuralist theory

1.241 QUANTUM THEORY

1.242 DECONSTRUCTION

1.243 BOURDIEU

1.244 ATTALI AND SOUND

1.245 POST-HUSSERLIAN PHENOMENOLOGY

1.2451 Heidegger and Dasein: being-in-the-world

1.2452 Merleau-Ponty: Embodiment and its implications

1.2453 Conclusion

1.25 Conclusion: anthropology and post-colonialism (learning from the ‘other’)

1.251 RESTRICTIONS OF EUROPEAN POST-MODERNISM

1.252 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRACTICE

1.253 SELF-REFLEXIVE ANTHROPOLOGY

1.254 WHAT CAN WE ACHIEVE?

1.3 The problematic nature of modern aesthetic and musicological theory

1.31 The modern paradigm in which much contemporary

aesthetic theory is embedded

1.311 WHAT DOES THE TERM ‘AESTHETICS’ ACTUALLY MEAN?

1.312 OUR MISPLACED CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS

1.313 EPISTEMOLOGICAL REASONS FOR THESE ASSUMPTIONS

1.314 ARTISTIC INSTITUTIONS AND THE ISSUE OF SOCIAL CONTROL

1.32 Specific implications for musicology

1.321 THE DISEMBEDDED MUSICAL TEXT

1.3211 Positivistic and static musicology

1.3212 Literate culture and the implications for folk-knowledge

1.3213 Disembeddedness and the serialist method

1.3214 Musical systems

1.3215 Conclusion

1.322 THE DISEMBEDDED MUSICAL TEXT IN PRACTICE

1.323 THE ISSUE OF NOTATION

1.324 RETAINING THE DISEMBEDDED MUSICAL TEXT IN THEORY

1.325 THE DANGER OF THE DISEMBEDDED MUSICAL TEXT

1.326 MUSICAL SEMIOTICS PERPETUATING DISEMBEDDEDNESS THROUGH THE ‘TRACE’

1.3261 Molino’s theory of art

1.3262 Musical semiotics and the trace

1.327 EMPOWERING THE LISTENER

1.33 Romanticism and the Myth of Unity

1.331 THE MYTH OF UNITY PERPETUATED BY ROMANTICISM

1.332 THE PERPETUATION OF MUSICAL ELITISM

1.34 Theoretical basis for elitism inherent in western musical PRAXIS and THEORY

1.341 BOURDIEU’S EXPLORATION OF CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

1.342 SOCIAL SEGREGATION OF ART

1.343 MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS PERPETUATING CULTURAL DOMINATION

1.344 PERPETUATION IN MUSICAL THEORY

1.345 CONCLUSION: Musical Change

1.35 Problems of reducing music to a purely aural context

1.351 NATTIEZ’S REDUCTION AS WESTERN PARADIGM

1.352 REASONS FOR THIS REDUCTION

1.353 MAJOR OUTCOME OF THIS REDUCTION

1.354 PROGRESS THANKS TO THE FIELD OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

1.36 CONCLUSION: from product to process…

1.4 Extending our vision of musical experience

1.41 What is multimedial musicality?

1.411 DEFINITION OF MULTIMEDIALITY

1.412 AN EXTENDED DEFINITION OF MUSICAL EXPERIENCE

1.413 MULTIMEDIALITY IN PRACTICE

1.414 MULTIMEDIAL MUSICALITY DEFINED

1.42 Musicality as a dynamic creative process and a sensual means of understanding

1.421 ALL PARTICIPANTS AS CREATORS

1.422 COMMUNAL ASPECT OF THE MULTIMEDIAL EXPERIENCE

1.423 THE IMPORTANCE OF SPATIAL/TEMPORAL ENVIRONMENT

1.424 BALINESE EXAMPLE

1.43 The connection between music and dance

1.431 POINTS OF BASIC SIMILARITY

1.432 THE IRREDUCIBILITY OF DANCE

1.433 EXAMPLES FROM BALINESE PERFORMANCE

1.4331 Intrinsic relationship between music and dance

1.4332 Dance and music teaching processes

1.4333 Dance controlling musical structure in traditional performance

1.4333 Balinese theatricality

1.44 Multimedial musicality in twentieth century Western performance

1.441 INTRODUCTION

1.4411 Italian and Russian Futurism: liberating the word

1.4412 The Dada Movement: introduction to aleatoricism

1.4413 German Expressionism: combining sound, colour and movement

1.4414 Dalcroze-Eurhythmics and Orff’s total theatre

1.4415 Multimedial musicality in America

1.4416 The New Music-Theatre

1.442 CONCLUSION

1.45 Towards a multimedial approach to music

1.5 Art, Music and Epistemology

1.51 What is an episteme?

1.52 What is a musical episteme?

1.521 THE EPISTEME AND LANGUAGE

1.522 EXISTING APPROACHES TO A MUSICAL EPISTEME

1.522 TWO MAJOR ASPECTS OF THE MUSICAL EPISTEME: dynamic tool and cultural vehicle

1.523 THE MUSICAL EPISTEME IN WESTERN CULTURE

1.524 MISAPPROPRIATION OF CULTURAL MATERIAL

1.53 Relationship between art and science

1.54 Music not as an aesthetic ‘product’, but a form of sensuous knowledge

1.541 THE DANGER OF PRODUCT-BASED APPROACHES

1.542 MUSIC AS SENSUAL KNOWLEDGE

1.543 MUSIC AS A WAY OF ‘KNOWING’

1.55 The performing arts and cognition

1.551 MUSICAL UNDERSTANDING EXPRESSING NON-DISCURSIVE THOUGHT PROCESSES

1.552 REFLEXIVE MUSICAL COGNITION

1.553 NON-DISCURSIVE THOUGHT REALISED IN PERFORMATIVE ACTION

1.554 MUSICAL THOUGHT BONDED TO SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ENVIRONMENTS

1.56 Music as an epistemological tool

1.561 MUSIC AS A FILTERING SYSTEM: musical intelligence

1.562 MUSIC AS A VITAL MEANS OF COMPREHENSION: musical experimentation

1.57 Music as a way of transmitting cultural knowledge and perpetuating culture

1.571 NOISE/SOUND DISTINCTION

1.572 MUSIC TRANSMITTING CERTAIN TYPES OF CULTURAL INFORMATION

1.573 MUSIC AND CULTURAL CHANGE

1.574 INDIVIDUALISM OF ARTISTIC MESSAGES AND CULTURAL ESTRANGEMENT

1.6 Music and the individual in a new analytical approach

1.61 Introduction to phenomenology

1.62 The drawbacks of traditional phenomenology (Hüsserl/Heidegger)

1.63 The profound influence of phenomenology on the development of anthropology

1.631 MOVES AGAINST ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE AND TRUTH

1.632 ABILITY TO RELATE OUR BEING TO THE ‘OTHER’

1.633 IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING ACTS EXPERIENTIALLY AS THEY OCCUR

1.634 IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL ATTITUDE AND COMMONSENSE KNOWLEDGE

1.635 LANGUAGE (AND MUSIC) AS CREATIVE MEDIUM

1.64 Specific implications for musicology

1.641 REDISCUSSION OF THE DUALITY OF ARTISTIC CREATION

1.642 MUSICAL CREATION AND RESTRICTION

1.643 THE ‘I’ DISCOVERING THE ‘OTHER’ THROUGH SHARING MUSIC

1.65 The importance of ‘enactive knowledge’: knowing is doing

1.651 AGAINST OBJECTIFICATION OF CULTURAL ACTS

1.652 RECOGNITION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ENACTION

1.653 FROM PRODUCT TO PROCESS

1.6531 Music as the product of a complex process

1.6532 The listening process occurs according to personal episteme

1.6533 A contrast between Javanese and European learning methodology

1.6534 Balinese/European musical processes

1.66 Conclusion: musical thinking as an active tool to understand reality

1.7 Towards an analytical model for musical experience:

music as experience, music as process, music as episteme

1.71 How the model works

1.72 DESA KALA PATRA:

the Balinese three-tiered approach to signification and change

1.73 An approach to a musical episteme

1.731 MUSICAL EXPERIENCE AS A SOCIAL FILTER: music and the other

[This first area explores the sociocultural nature of music.]

1.7311 Noise/Sound distinction

1.7312 Music communicating social and status

1.7313 Music used for social and political ends

1.7314 Music used for other sociocultural tasks

1.732 MUSICAL EXPERIENCE AS A TOOL TO COMPREHEND OUR TEMPORAL AND

SPATIAL WORLD: music and its presence

[Music and dance teach us how to experience space and time as it is realised in the present, becoming a phenomenological tool for understanding a particularly dynamic environment.]

1.7321 The self-reflexive sign pointing at itself

1.7322 Music and dance communicating dynamic spatial and temporal information

1.7323 Music and dance creating communal space

1.7324 The dynamism of the ‘story’ enacted by music

1.7325 The portable sound environment

1.7326 Taksu and the joy of the moment of realisation

1.733 MUSICAL EXPERIENCE AS A TOOL OF MEMORY: music and the past discovered in the present

[Musical experience becomes a tools for experiencing particular times and places, dynamic moments in the past, in other words, textual tools which give us the means to reunderstand elements of our culture in a new context.]

1.8 Conclusion: Towards a theory of multimedial musical experience

1.81 Adopting the triangular analytical model

1.811 MODEL 1: music in an environment

1.812 MODEL 2: music as process

1.813 MODEL 3: music as episteme

1.814 COMBINATION OF THE MODELS

1.82 A process-based approach to musical meaning

References
Chapter 2: The Musical Episteme as Text

2.1 Introduction

2.11 Langue and the structuralist paradigm

2.111 EMBEDDEDNESS OF WESTERN APPROACHES TO TEXT IN ITS OWN CULTURE

2.112 THE ORIGIN OF THE TERMS ‘LANGUE’ AND ‘PAROLE’

2.113 STRUCTURALISM IN ANTHROPOLOGY OF BALI

2.114 THE REPERCUSSIONS OF THIS THEORY: frozen knowledge in (post)-structuralism

2.115 POST-STRUCTURAL SEMIOTICS

2.12 Discourse according to Benveniste: realisation of text

2.13 The text according to Ricœur: the freezing of discourse

2.131 TEXT AS FROZEN DISCOURSE

2.132 THE ERADICATION OF THE WRITER IN THE TEXT

2.133 RICŒURIAN ‘DISTANCIATION’

2.134 THE TRANSCENDENT TEXT

2.135 CONCLUSION

2.14 The text according to Lotman

2.15 Towards a recognition of text in action

2.151 INTRODUCTION

2.152 WITTGENSTEIN

2.153 AUSTIN AND SPEECH ACTS

2.154 CONCLUSION

2.16 A step closer to musical performance:

inadequacy of traditional textual models

2.161 NECESSITY OF NEW MODELS

2.162 RESTRICTION OF THE RICŒURIAN TEXT

2.163 PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE WESTERN MUSICAL TEXT

2.164 NEW POSSIBILITIES PROVIDED BY A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD

2.165 POSITIVE NEW PROPOSALS

2.2 Work/Text distinction

2.21 The Work according to Ricœur

2.22 The Work and its Author according to Barthes

2.23 The Text according to Barthes

2.24 The Text paradigm and its implications for music

2.25 Text as Enacted Intertextual Discourse

2.251 OUR TEXT AND THE TEXT OF THE OTHER

2.252 CULTURE AS TEXT

2.253 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ENACTMENT OF (MUSICAL) TEXTS

2.2531 Text and its enactment

2.2532 ‘Jouissance’ in the Text

2.2533 Jouissance and Balinese Taksu

2.254 MUSIC AS INTERTEXTUAL AND INTRATEXTUAL MEANS

2.26 Music as PAROLE: text’s most dynamic expression

2.3 Text as Performance

2.31 The Iconic Power of Speech

2.311 SPEECH AS PERFORMATIVE ACTION

2.312 ANCIENT APPROACHES TO ‘SPEECH’

2.313 THE POWER OF SPEECH IN CONTEMPORARY WESTERN CULTURE

2.314 THE POWER OF SPEECH IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA

2.315 CONCLUSION

2.32 Orality/Literacy paradigm and its consequences for understanding Text

2.321 WHAT IS A PARADIGM SHIFT?

2.322 ORALITY AND LITERACY AND THE MUSICAL ‘TEXT’ (SCORE)

2.3221 What is musical textuality?

2.3222 A little musical history…

2.3223 What is musical inscription?

2.3224 ‘Folk’ and ‘Empirical’ textuality in literate and oral cultures

2.3225 Overcoming one’s folk instincts

2.3226 Comparison to Javanese Balungan

2.3227 Comparison to Balinese notation: tradition, intuition, innovation

2.325 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LIVING TEXT: aural and visual understanding

2.326 CONCLUSION

2.33 Balinese Textuality

2.331 BALINESE TEXTUALITY BOTH LITERAL AND ORAL

2.332 BALINESE TEXTUAL TRANSLATION

2.333 THE MEANING OF ‘NONSENSE’ TEXTS

2.334 BALINESE TEXTUALITY

2.34 Alternative approaches to textual inscription

2.341 THE TAMIL ‘OLAI’

2.342 THE BALINESE LONTAR

2.343 INSCRIPTION OF MUSIC

2.344 CONCLUSION: the dynamic (re-)inscription of text

2.35 New Visions for the TEXT

2.351 THE TEXT AS MULTIMEDIAL ‘WEAVE’

2.352 THE PERFORMATIVE TEXT

2.353 THE BALINESE TEXT MAKING SENSE OF THE IMMEDIATE PRESENCE

2.36 The recital of Balinese texts

2.361 SITUATIONS WHICH INVOLVE THE ‘READING’ OF TEXTS IN BALI

2.362 SEKEHE BEBASAN AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

2.363 THE INTONATION OF MEANING

2.37 The realisation of Balinese texts in the context of performances

2.371 HISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMATIVE TEXTS

2.372 TEXT IN WAYANG KULIT

2.373 GEGURITAN TEXTS IN ARJA

2.374 TEXT IN CAKAPUNG

2.375 TEXT IN TOPENG

2.4 Text as a tool for cultural perpetuation and change

2.41 Addition of the term ‘langage’ to extend the langue/parole model

2.411 RESTRICTION OF LANGUE-PAROLE MODEL

2.412 BARTHES AND LANGAGE

2.413 WHAT IS LANGAGE?

2.414 TRIANGULAR MODEL

2.42 LANGAGE as the perpetuation of tradition

2.421 LANGAGE AS TRADITION IN BALI

2.422 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL

2.43 Text as a TOOL for perceiving/understanding reality

2.431 TEXT AS A TOOL

2.432 UNREADABLE AND REGIMENTED TEXTS

2.433 BALINESE TEXTS AND THEIR REALITY

2.434 BALINESE TEXTS AND CULTURAL CHANGE

2.44 Text as a means for perpetuating Balinese culture

2.441 BALINESE WAYANG TEXTS

2.442 BALINESE MUSICAL TEXTS IN CULTURAL PERPETUATION

2.45 Balinese tradition as a coherent adaptable system

2.5 The Living Text

2.51 Artistic texts as modelling systems of reality

2.511 ART AS A FORM OF MODEL FOR THE WORLD

2.512 LOTMAN’S VISION OF ARTISTIC ‘TEXTS’ IN CULTURE

2.513 SIMPLICITY OF LOTMAN’S MODEL

2.514 BALINESE TEXTS

2.515 MUSICALITY AS AN ELEMENT OF THE ARTISTIC TEXT

2.52 Background information on the Wayang performances

2.521 ORIGIN OF THE WAYANG STORIES

2.522 WAYANG TEXTS AS FABRIC COMBINING MULTIMEDIAL ELEMENTS

2.523 THE ROLE OF THE DALANG

2.53 Reciting of Karawitan as an educational TOOL

2.531 INTRODUCTION

2.532 PAREKAN CHARACTERS

2.533 COMPARISON OF SEKEHE BEBASAN AND PAREKAN ROLES

2.534 WAYANG KULIT AS EDUCATIONAL TOOL

2.535 CONTEMPORARY EXAMPLE

2.54 Ritual potency of Wayang performance texts

2.541 DAY WAYANG (WAYANG LEMAH) DESCRIPTION

2.542 MUSICALITY INHERENT IN FORM

2.53 Conclusion: Wayang performances providing a blueprint for reality

2.6 The Musical Text

2.61 Musical texts expressing a unique form of cultural knowledge

2.611 MUSICAL TEXT AS A FORM OF UNDERSTANDING

2.612 BALINESE CULTURAL PERPETUATION

2.613 MUSICAL TEXTS PROVIDING A METHOD OF UNDERSTANDING

2.62 Text bridging Nature and Culture by reproducing natural signs

2.63 Musical texts expressing cognitive states

2.631 RELATIONHIP BETWEEN MUSICAL AND RITUAL COMMUNICATION

2.632 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL LIFE AND THE COGNITIVE EXPERIENCE

OF MUSICALITY

2.633 BALINESE COGNITIVE MUSICALITY

2.64 Musical Texts and their Indexical Function

2.65 The Balinese Musical Text

2.7 Conclusion: the popularity of the multimedial performance text

2.71 Importance of a new approach to text

2.72 The text as cultural model

2.73 Accessible and difficult texts

2.74 The Dynamism of the Balinese Musical Text

References

Chapter 3: The Musical Text as an Embedded Sign

3.1 Introduction

3.11 Objective knowledge as a stigma of Western culture

3.111 QUESTIONING OBJECTIVITY = QUESTIONING OUR FORMS OF UNDERSTANDING

3.112 OBJECTIVITY AND PEIRCE’S IDEAL

3.113 BOURDIEU’S APPROACH: questioning pure objectivism

3.114 KERSENBOOM’S APPROACH: revealing objectivity as wishful thinking

3.12 What is embeddedness?: realisation of the embedded sign in praxis

3.121 THE DYNAMIC SIGN

3.122 RECOGNITION OF THE PARTICIPANTS

3.123 IMPORTANCE OF ENACTMENT IN PERPETUATING CULTURE

3.13 Questioning of traditional approaches to the sign (de Saussure and Peirce)

3.131 SAUSSURIAN STASIS

3.132 PEIRCIAN INNOVATION

3.133 PEIRCIAN POSITIVISM

3.14 The complexity of the embedded sign

3.141 OUR COMPREHENSION REMAINS IRREDUCIBLE TO INDIVIDUAL SIGNS

3.142 EXTENSION OF THE SIGN TO SYMBOLIC FORM

3.144 EMBEDDEDNESS AND DASEIN

3.145 BALINESE EMBEDDEDNESS

3.15 The Embedded Sign

3.2 Approaching Reality by Creating Signs:

the Individual and the Sign

3.21 The symbolic universe which individuals create

3.211 THE SYMBOLIC UNIVERSE WE CREATE BETWEEN NATURE AND CULTURE

3.112 INDIVIDUALS AS ACTIVE PARTICIPANTS

3.212 BALINESE EXAMPLES OF INDIVIDUALISATION OF SYMBOLISM

3.22 Frank Smith’s approach to the creative role of cognition

3.221 THE BRAIN AS AN ARTIST

3.222 THE ‘THEORY OF THE WORLD’ WHICH IS CULTURE

3.223 PERFORMING CULTURE

3.23 Culture as Praxis / Culture as a Performing Art

3.24 The Living Presence of TAKSU

3.25 Music as the ultimate sign connecting nature and culture: Music as Praxis

3.3 The Sign as a Temporal Unit: ICON, INDEX and SYMBOL

3.31 Discussion of limitations of Peirce’s sign trilogy

3.311 PEIRCE’S EPISTEME

3.312 PEIRCE’S SIGN: icon, index and symbol

3.313 CONTRAST BETWEEN ANALYSIS OF THE SIGN AND SEMIOSIS

3.32 Roman Jakobson’s interpretation of Peirce in relation to time

3.321 JAKOBSON’S TEMPORALLY BASED SIGN

3.322 EXAMPLES OF ICONIC COMMUNICATION

3.323 INDEXICAL COMMUNICATION AS THE PROCESS SIGN

3.33 Kersenboom’s application of this theory to the ‘Embedded Sign’

3.34 Examples of applications of this model in ritual situations

3.351 RITUALLY-BASED EMBEDDED SIGNS 1: the institution of marriage

3.352 RITUALLY-BASED EMBEDDED SIGNS 2: the Aids ritual

3.35 The danger of focussing on one element of the embedded sign

3.351 PURE ICONICITY IN SERIALISM

3.352 PURE INDEXICALITY IN FREE IMPROVISATION

3.4 The Sign as an Embedded Cultural Unit Built onto a Fertile Soil

3.41 Discussion of Bourdieu’s reintroduction of the term ‘Habitus’

3.411 THE THEORY OF THE WORLD WHICH IS HABITUS

3.412 BOURDIEU’S HABITUS

3.413 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROCESS OF IMPLEMENTING HABITUS

3.414 CULTURE AS A SYSTEM GENERATING BEHAVIOUR: generative principles

3.415 HABITUS AND CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS: objective conditions

3.416 FROM PASSIVE ENACTION TO DYNAMIC ENACTION: improvisation of individuals

3.42 Kersenboom’s Embedded Sign:

application of Habitus to the triangular model

3.43 Adaptive nature of culturally embedded signs

3.431 THE EXAMPLE OF MARRIAGE: an individual’s improvisation upon a theme

3.342 STASIS FORCING CHANGE: the example of the church in our culture

3.343 SYMBOLIC NECESSITY FORCING CHANGE: the example of the AIDS Memorial Day

3.434 STASIS FORCING CHANGE OF OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS: image of the artist

3.435 EUROPEAN STASIS: they are so settled in their ways…

3.44 Balinese ability to change its Habitus for the purpose of adaptation

3.441 BALINESE PERCEPTION OF MEANING BASED IN CHANGE: Desa Kala Patra

3.442 BALINESE CULTURE AND OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS AND IMPROVISATION

3.443 CHANGING SYMBOLIC MEANING ATTACHED TO DIFFERENT CULTURAL STRUCTURES

3.444 CHANGING IMPROVISATION BY REPLACING TRADITIONAL FORMS

3.5 Musical Signs as Socially Inculcated Behaviour

3.51 Behaviour and Praxis: Signs Perpetuated through the Body

3.511 BOURDIEU’S BODILY HEXIS

3.512 HABITUS AS BEHAVIOUR (parole) AND PRAXIS (langage)

3.513 REANTHROPOLOGISING OUR OWN BEHAVIOUR

3.514 SOCIAL INCULCATION

3.515 EXAMPLES FROM EUROPEAN CULTURE

3.5151 Social inculcation in music and dance

3.516 EXAMPLES FROM BALINESE CULTURE

3.5161 Balinese spatiality

3.517 MUSIC AS INCULCATED BEHAVIOUR

3.52 The rigidity of social inculcation in Balinese culture (Wikan)

3.521 IMPORTANCE OF MANNERS AND RETAINING PLACIDITY

3.522 RADICALLY STRUCTURED BODILY BEHAVIOUR: Balinese are always on stage

3.53 Music and dance as potent forms of inculcation embedded in the present

3.531 MUSIC AND DANCE AS RADICAL FORMS OF INCULCATION

3.532 RADICAL BODILY HEXIS IN MUSIC AND DANCE EXPRESSION

3.54 Balinese examples of social inculcation in performing arts

3.541 IMMERSION IN ACTIVITIES: a plethora of signs

3.542 INCULCATION IN MUSIC

3.543 INCULCATION IN BALINESE DANCE

3.6 Examples of the adaptive nature of

Balinese Signs in Performance

3.61 The importance of recognising culture as being in a constant flux

3.62 Different types of cultural change: iconic, symbolic and indexical change

3.63 Importance of indexicality or action-based events

in Balinese performance

3.64 Particular examples from Balinese culture

3.641 THE ADAPTIVE NATURE OF THE EMBEDDED SIGN

3.642 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: iconic and indexical change

3.643 SYMBOLIC NEEDS OF AN EXPANDING DENPASAR: indexical change

3.644 BALINESE DANCE: example of symbolic change

3.645 TOPENG: iconic change

3.646 BERUTUK: indexical, symbolic and iconic change

3.647 BARONG LANDUNG: iconic and symbolic change

3.7 Organic Nature of the Musical Sign

3.71 The musical sign bridging the gap between nature and culture

3.711 FROM NATURAL TO MUSICAL INFORMATION

3.712 NATURAL SYMBOLISM AND MUSIC

3.713 THE MUSICAL SIGN CONNECTING THE FRAGMENTS OF CULTURE

3.714 MUSICAL AND RITUAL COMMUNICATION

3.715 MUSICAL FORCE AND NATURAL FORCE

3.72 The contrasting powers of musical signs

3.711 THE SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL ASPECT OF MUSIC

3.712 THE (MAGICAL) POWER OF SOUND

3.713 QUALITIES OF THE MUSICAL SIGN

3.7131 The Pleasure of the Musical Sign

3.7132 The Deictics of the Musical Sign

3.7133 The Musical Sign and Cultural Change

3.7134 The Musical Sign and Balance/Imbalance

3.7135 The Musical Sign creating a Communal and Sacred Space

3.714 THE OVERT POWER OF THE MUSICAL SIGN

3.8 Conclusion: the Organic Musical Sign

References

Chapter 4: The Musical Text as an Embedded Sign

4.1 An introduction to embodiment

4.11 What is embodiment?

4.111 EMBODIMENT IN LANGUAGE

4.112 EMBODIMENT AS PHYSICAL REALISATION OF COGNITION

4.113 EMBODIMENT AS AN EXPRESSION OF MULTIMEDIAL MUSICALITY

4.12 Drawbacks of transcendental scientific paradigm

4.121 THE DISENGAGEMENT OF THE BODY IN WESTERN THOUGHT

4.122 DICHOTOMOUS THINKING

4.123 DANGER OF OBJECTIVITY

4.124 EMBODIED ASPECT CONSIDERED LESS IMPORTANT OR COMPLETE: langue/parole

4.125 OUR DESIRE TO TRANSCEND EMBODIED KNOWLEDGE (Lyotard)

4.13 Early Phenomenology Tracing the Absolutist Path

4.131 THE LONGING FOR ABSOLUTE KNOWLEDGE

4.132 HÜSSERLIAN PHENOMENOLOGY

4.133 HÜSSERLIAN TRANSCENDENTALISM

4.134 TRANSCENDING HÜSSERL

4.14 Embodiment in Contemporary Theory

4.141 THE BODY SPOTLIGHTED: an insight into contemporary approaches to embodiment

4.142 EMBODIMENT IN COMMUNICATION

4.143 THE BODY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

4.144 EMBODIED KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE

4.15 Embodied Experience (Johnson)

4.151 THE BODY AS A BASIS FOR HUMAN RATIONALITY

4.152 IMAGE SCHEMATA AND METAPHORICAL PROJECTIONS

4.153 EXAMPLES OF METAPHORICAL PROJECTIONS

4.154 LANGUAGE AND EMBODIED UNDERSTANDING

4.16 Embodiment in Science (Varela)

4.161 THE ENACTIVE APPROACH

4.162 TOWARDS A CREATIVE COGNITION

4.163 EMBODIED COMPREHENSION AND CLASSIFICATION

4.17 Performance Embodied in a Temporal and Spatial Environment

4.171 PERFORMANCE EMBODYING OUR ENVIRONMENT

4.172 EMBODIMENT AS ENACTION IN A LIVING ENVIRONMENT

4.173 THE TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL NATURE OF PERFORMANCE

4.174 DESA KALA PATRA AND EMBODIED UNDERSTANDING

4.2 Embodiment in psycholinguistics:

learning through active realisations of our environment

4.21 The traditional ‘information processor’ approach to language learning

4.22 The interactive approach in psycholinguistics

4.221 THE INNATIST AND THE INTERACTIONIST VIEWS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

4.222 INTERACTION AS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

4.223 CREATIVITY IN FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING

4.224 ENACTIVE LEARNING PROCESSES IN MUSIC: emphasis on process and not product

4.225 CREATIVE COGNITION AND MUSICAL THINKING: towards the embodied musical sign

4.23 The embodied nature of musical experience

4.231 EMBODIMENT IN PERFORMANCE

4.232 SPATIOMOTOR MODES OF MUSICAL EMBODIMENT

4.233 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUSIC AND DANCE

4.234 REDRESSING THE BALANCE: auditory and motion processes in musical understanding

4.3 Time, Space and Embodiment in Balinese Life

4.31 The Basic axioms of Balinese Culture

4.32 Process-Based Ontology

4.33 Spatiality in Bali and its relationship to Balinese cultural embodiment

4.332 SACRED SPACE

4.333 BALINESE BODILY HEXIS

4.334 THE POWER OF THE CROWD: secular communal space and the concept of ‘ramai’

4.34 Cyclical Time in Balinese Life and Religion

4.341 HINDU CONCEPTION OF TIME

4.342 PERMUTATIONAL CALENDAR

4.343 THE BALINESE LUNAR-SOLAR CALENDAR

4.35 Application of the ‘Nawasanga’

4.4 Time, Space and Embodiment in Balinese Performance Texts

4.41 Application of the ‘Triloka’ to Balinese performance

4.411 SUBDIVISION OF THE WORLD

4.412 OCCASIONS OF USE

4.413 STRUCTURE OF THE WORKS

4.414 INSTRUMENTAL PARTS

4.42 Dance and Music in Balinese Ritual

4.43 Musical Structures and Balinese Liturgical and Secular Temporality

4.431 THE ROOTS OF BALINESE MUSICAL TEMPORALITY

4.432 COLOTOMIC GONG STRUCTURES AND CYCLICAL TIME

4.433 TRANSFORMATION OF TIME

4.434 EMBODIMENT OF TIME

4.435 HISTORICAL AND RITUAL TEMPORALITY IN BALINESE PERFORMANCE

4.44 Liturgical and Secular space in Balinese music

4.441 PHYSICAL DYNAMISM OF KOTEKAN

4.442 BALEGANJUR

4.443 SPATIALITY IN BALINESE CONTEMPORARY PERFORMANCE

4.444 CREATING A SENSE OF SPACE IN PERFORMANCE

4.445 CREATING SACRED SPACE

4.45 Musical Structures and Social Structures

4.451 SECULAR PERFORMANCE

4.452 GAMELAN AS METAPHOR FOR BANJAR STRUCTURE

4.453 KOTEKAN

4.46 Embodiment in Balinese Performance (trance and taksu)

4.461 TRANCE AND TAKSU TRANSFORMING TIME AND SPACE

4.462 TRANCE AS A FORM OF EMBODIMENT: spontaneous induction in a given environment

4.463 TAKSU AS A FORM OF EMBODIMENT:

personally induced for specific performance-based conditions

4.463 EMBODIMENT IN THE BALINESE VOCAL ARTS

4.47 Relationship between music and dance/movement

4.471 MUSIC AND DANCE AS INTERRELATED TERMS

4.472 DANCE CONTROLLING MUSIC IN BALINESE PERFORMANCE

4.473 DANCE AND MUSIC SHARING SAME ABSTRACT LANGUAGE

4.474 BALINESE ‘THEATRICALITY’

4.475 KEBYAR DUDUK

4.5 Conclusion: The Balinese Embodied Musical Sign

4.6 General Conclusions

References

Chapter five: The Balinese Musical Sign

5.0 Introduction

5.1 Art in Society: Music as a Tool of Cultural Perpetuation

5.11 The top-down/bottom-up approach to art (tradition/innovation)

5.111 TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP THINKING

5.112 THE ROLE OF AVANT-GARDE ART IN SOCIETAL CHANGE

5.1121 The cultural text as model for reality

5.1122 Comparison between traditional and avant-garde artistic texts

5.1123 The artist extending existing cultural texts or creating new ones

5.1124 The sensitivity of the tradition/innovation relationship

5.1125 Art as a powerful tool for social change

5.113 ARTISTIC MODELS FOR CHANGE IN BALINESE CULTURE

5.114 CONTEMPORARY BALINESE MUSIC: Kreasi Baru and Musik Kontemporer

5.12 The epistemic quality of performance and musical communication:

cultural tools in action

5.121 INDIVIDUALS TESTING THEIR THEORIES OF THE WORLD

5.122 THE ARTISTIC TEXT IN ACTION

5.123 THE DYNAMIC BALINESE MUSICAL TESTING GROUNDS

5.124 THE MUSICAL TEXT AS A POWERFUL CULTURAL TOOL

5.125 BALINESE CULTURAL TEXTS BETWEEN TRADITION AND INNOVATION

5.13 Balinese terms for composer/artists

(alternative notions of tradition/innovation)

5.131 DISCUSSION OF THE TERMINOLOGY[1]

5.132 CONTRAST IN SIGNIFICATION

5.133 THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE ARTIST IN BALI

5.14 Balinese art forms reflecting tradition and innovation

5.141 RENEWAL IN BALINESE ART

5.142 DISCUSSION OF BALINESE CONSERVATISM

5.1421 The origin of the Balinese avant-garde

5.1422 Balinese intolerance for avant-garde texts

5.1423 Examples of conservatism in performances

5.1424 Conservatism explained: necessity for gradual change

5.143 CONSTANT BUT GRADUAL INNOVATION IN CONTEMPORARY GONG KEBYAR

5.144 BALI’S CONTROL OVER ITS ARTISTIC TEXTS: STSI (official) and competitions (PKB)

5.145 EMERGENCE OF NEW FORMS NEXT TO GONG KEBYAR

5.15 Importance of intercultural influence

5.151 THE TRADITIONAL ‘FEAR’ OF INTERCULTURAL INFLUENCE

5.152 INTERCULTURAL TEXTS AS TOOLS TO UNDERSTAND THE CHANGING WORLD

5.153 INTERCULTURALITY IN ART

5.154 INTERCULTURALITY IN ARTISTIC PROCESSES

5.155 THE IMPORTANCE AND INEVITABILITY OF INTERCULTURALITY

5.16 Self-reflexive Interculturality

5.161 THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERACTION IN THE PERFORMING ARTS

5.162 THE SELF-CENTRED NATURE OF THE SELF-REFLEXIVE ACT

5.1621 Self-centred interculturality explained

5.1622 The danger of distancing interculturality from its context

5.1623 Importance of interculturality

5.163 THE EDUCATIONAL ROLE OF SELF-REFLEXIVE INTERCULTURAL INFLUENCE

5.164 EMBARRASSING INTERCULTURAL EXPECTATIONS

5.2 Balinese Approach to Signification: Desa Kala Patra

5.21 Meaning of the Sanskrit terms ‘desa kala patra’

5.22 Contrast between Balinese and European notions of signification

5.221 FIXED MEANING VERSUS TRANSITORY MEANING

5.222 TENDENCY TO STANDARDISE VERSUS TRANSITORY CLASSIFICATION

5.223 FIXED PERFORMANCE TEXTS VERSUS ADAPTIVE PERFORMANCE TEXTS

5.224 FIXED PITCH VERSUS TRANSITORY PITCH

5.225 FIXED DOGMA VERSUS ADAPTIVE GODHEAD

5.23 DESA KALA PATRA in Practice:

Balinese ability to adapt to cultural change

5.231 DESA KALA PATRA IN THE GRAPHIC ARTS

5.232 ADAPTING TO TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

5.233 DESA KALA PATRA IN MUSIC NOTATION

5.234 DESA KALA PATRA IN POLITICS

5.235 CONCLUSION

5.24 Balinese Self-reflexivity

5.241 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE TERM

5.242 BALINESE ABILITY TO PARTICIPATE AND REFLECT UPON THEIR CULTURE

5.243 BALINESE MUSICAL THEATRE: from trance-states to ‘ramai’

5.244 THE CLOWN IN BALINESE CULTURE

5.245 EXTERNAL EMBODIMENT AND ACADEMIC SELF-REFLEXIVITY

5.3 Balinese Embedded Contexts

5.31 Balinese Hindu Symbology

5.311 GEOGRAPHICAL POINTS AND POLAR FORCES IN BALINESE-HINDU MYTHOLOGY

5.312 THE TRILOKA: Balinese numerology

5.313 SEKALA / NISKALA COMPARISON

5.314 THE KAKAYONAN

5.315 THE NAWASANGA

5.316 KAÎKET

5.32 Sound and ontology in Balinese life

5.321 ALL-PERVADING SOUND IN [BALINESE] HINDUISM

5.322 MAINTAINING BALANCE

5.323 SOUND, MUSIC AND THE TRILOKA

5.324 SLENDRO AND PELOG IN SPIRITUAL COMMUNICATION

5.33 The Role of the Penasar Figures

5.331 DEFINITION OF THE TERM

5.332 UNIQUE FUNCTION AS INTERPRETERS

5.333 POLY-LINGUALITY AND WISDOM

5.34 The concept ‘ramai’ and its significance in Balinese life

5.35 Symbolic Systems in Balinese Musical Experience

5.351 BALINESE LONTAR ON MUSICAL SIGNIFICATION

5.352 BALINESE MUSIC AND CYCLICAL TIME

5.353 BALINESE PERFORMANCE AND THE DUAL UNITY

5.354 BALINESE MUSIC DEMARCATING SACRED SPACE AND TIME

5.3541 Kotekan evoking sacred space and time

5.3542 Balinese music interconnecting the participants (mutuality)

5.3543 Maintaining bodily balance

5.355 MUSIC REPRESENTING BALINESE SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

5.36 The way the Balinese internalise and perpetuate their own performance traditions

5.37 Change in Contemporary Balinese Traditional Culture

5.4 Early Developments in the musical tradition

5.41 Introduction

5.411 BALINESE CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

5.412 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PERFORMING ARTS TRADITIONS

5.413 BALINESE ABILITY TO ASSIMILATE OTHER CULTURES

5.414 THE ORIGIN OF BALINESE MUSICALITY

5.42 Early Days until the Majapahit Empire

5.421 PERFORMANCE IN EARLY BALINESE CULTURE

5.422 EARLY JAVANESE INFLUENCE

5.423 ENTRANCE OF THE MAJAPAHIT EMPIRE

5.43 The Achievements of the Majapahit Empire

5.431 THE MAJAPAHIT EMPIRE

5.432 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

5.433 THE THEATRE-STATE

5.434 THE MAJAPAHIT LEGACY

5.435 THE DEVELOPMENT OF GAMBUH

5.44 Splendour in the Golden Age of Gèlgèl

5.45 Shattering of the empire into smaller kingdoms

5.451 THE IMAGE OF THE ROMANTIC PRINCES

5.452 THE PANJI STORIES

5.453 THE EMERGENCE OF MENGWI AND KLUNGKUNG

5.453 ARJA AND GEGURITAN

5.46 Entrance of Dutch Colonial Imperialism

5.461 BALINESE PRE-COLONIAL SELF-IMAGE

5.462 THE END OF BALINESE RULE

5.463 DUTCH RULE

5.464 CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES FOR BALI

5.5 Colonial Mythology: Bali as a Fantasy Fulfilled

for Western Artists and Anthropologists

5.51 Introduction: The Orient and the Other

5.511 ORIENTALISM AND THE ‘OTHER’

5.5111 Orientalism defined

5.5112 Orientalism perpetuating imperialism

5.5113 Orientalism, technology and paternalism

5.512 BALINESE CULTURE CONSTRUCTED AS THE EXOTIC ‘OTHER’

5.513 THE DUTCH AND THE FLOWERING OF CULTURAL TOURISM

5.514 BALI AS A DREAM COME TRUE FOR WESTERN ARTISTS AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS

5.5151 Introduction

5.5152 The artists

5.52 Colonial images of Bali, Indonesia

5.521 BALI CONSTRUCTED AS THE ETERNAL PARADISE

5.522 THE APOLITICAL MYTH

5.523 THE FANTASY OF THE VILLAGE BALI

5.524 HOW THE BALINESE ADAPTED TO COLONIAL RULE

5.53 Anthropologists and their personal agendas

5.531 PATERNALISTIC ATTITUDE TO THE BALINESE CULTURE

5.532 PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA USED

5.533 BALINESE ANTHROPOLOGY AND ITS LIMITATIONS

5.5331 The Walter Spies circle

5.5332 Margaret Mead’s Bali

5.5333 Bateson’s cognitive theory

5.54 Walter Spies and his circle of artists

5.541 WALTER SPIES THE MAN

5.542 THE CIRCLE HELD AROUND SPIES

5.543 BONNET AND THE NEW SCHOOL OF BALINESE PAINTING

5.544 SPIES’S INFLUENCE ON THE BALINESE

5.545 MIGUEL COVARRUBIAS

5.546 THE LEGACY OF SPIES

5.45 Colin McPhee and his influence on Balinese music